The coastal regions and oceans globally

There are complicated issues when it comes to land and sea interaction and the understanding of the link between the catchment area and the coast which is essential in managing coastal issues and landscapes. Conducting activities affects the quality of water in river systems and wetland areas, which negatively impacts the health of coastal and marine environments. This can have implications for natural values such as fish stocks, seagrass beds and biodiversity.Coastal zone management is a necessary as it is the integration of all aspects of the coastal zone. This includes environmental, social and economical balance to attain a sustainable balance all around. Sustainability is the goal to allow development to take place and also protecting the environment within as we develop. Coastal zones are fragile and do not do well with change, so it is important to acquire sustainable development. DefinitionsCoastal regions are the narrow transition areas that connect terrestrial and marine environments, they are our planets most productive and valued ecosystems (Crossland et al., 2005). Sixty percent of the worlds major cities are located in coastal zones, and 40% of the all the people on the planet live within 100 km of a coastal zone (Nicholls et al., 2007). Within coastal areas, we see the tightly intertwined relationships between humans and coastal resources amplifying the most urgent questions of limits and equilibrium, sustainability, and development in our world today.Coastal regions are commonly defined as the interface or transition areas between land and sea, including large inland lakes. Coastal areas are diverse in function and form, dynamic and do not lend themselves well to definition by strict spatial boundaries. The coastal zone is an interface between the land and sea, which comprised of a continuum of coastal land, intertidal area, aquatic systems including the network of rivers and estuaries, islands, transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998).The coastal zone is not a stable and constant environment, but a dynamic place that can change rapidly in response to natural processes such as seasonal weather patterns.Limitations of a Coastal RegionFor Small Island StatesCoastal places are demarcated by temperature, type of soil and water. They have moderate climate because they are neither too hot nor too cold. This is due to the nearby presence of water to the area which controls the heat and spreads the moisture. People on the coast also experience humidity. Whereas places out of the coastal regions enjoy extreme climates either too hot or too cold. Coastal regions have manageable climate changes with cool summers and cool winters. This means narrow temperature ranges throughout the year, coastal side we find only, usually, saline water and sandy land wherein there will not be much variations in the type of heat transfer in conduction, convection and radiation.For Big CountriesFor example, if it has been a hot day in Dallas, at night temperature descends.  The land and air cool very quickly, therefore creating negative pressure, and this area begins to suck air from all around it. It just so happens that in Dallas, there is a powerful cold front sweeping across, so your area sucks up all of this very cold air that originated from Pacific waters. Tomorrow is going to be very cold compared to today. So, the temperatures for big countries differ for coastal regions and non-coastal regions as the land emits heat quickly. Non-coastal regions have either extreme when it comes to weather conditions than on coastal regions. Coastal Processes Waves, winds, currents, tides and storms are the major forces on the coast. The results of actions and interactions of these natural forces on the shoreline and near-shore seabed are called coastal processes. These include erosion and deposition, movement of dunes, longshore drift, and the effects of storms on the coastline.Erosion and DepositionEnvironmental activities that occur in coastal regions. Erosion is one of the major activities that are environmental in coastal regions. This wearing away of land or the removal of the beach or dune sediments happens through waves, tidal currents, drainage and wind. Erosion may result in long-term losses of sediment and rocks, or merely the temporary redistribution of coastal sediments. Then there is recession which is the result of ongoing erosion with no sediment replenishment, resulting in the landward retreat of the shoreline.(Crossland et al, 2005 ) The impacts of sea level rise and climate change will result in more frequent and severe storm events and higher sea levels will increase the rate of coastal erosion and lead to coastal recession in many coastal areas.Longshore DriftIn some instances, 90% of the amount of sand moved throughout a year by longshore drift can occur in just two weeks during extreme stormy periods. A major storm or storms is highly likely to occur in every 20 years or more.Ocean TemperatureThe increasing ocean temperatures are a threat to coastal regions governance this is also taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. If warming in the Indian Ocean increases this also increases ocean stratification, which will prevent nutrient mixing in the euphotic zone where there is more lighting conjusive for photosynthesis. Thus, if primary production is reduced the region\’s entire food web will be disrupted. (Constanza et al, 2017) If rapid warming continues, experts predict that the Indian Ocean will transform into an ecological desert and will no longer be productive. The same study also addresses the abrupt decline of tuna catch rates in the Indian Ocean during the past half century. This decrease is mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species. These rates show a 50-90% decrease over 5 decades.  Effects of Storms on CoastlinesStorms can dramatically change beach, dune and bar systems in a very short period. Storms produce high energy and steep waves that can erode beaches, destroy foredunes and even erode the dunes behind. It often takes years after a storm before the original dune is restored; intervention may be required if public safety is at risk.                    Tropical storms and hurricanes are very destructive environmental especially in coastal regions. During Hurricane Andrew which happened in 1992 in Florida there was extreme damages experienced. It was a category five hurricane that caused $26.5 billion in damages and even 23 individuals lost their lives from the storm. Hurricane Katrina also caused havoc along the coast to show the extreme force a hurricane can do in a certain region. The Chennai Floods that occurred in 2015, affected many people, this was due to cyclones. Many cyclones like this happen across Asia but the media reports only minor hurricanes which hit the United States.  Bangladesh and Vietnam have been on the extreme side when it comes to vulnerability. Majority of the population and most of the national economy comes from these low-lying archipelagos in the Maldives and the Bahamas and are now under threat, yet China is at the very top of the list. According to Schwartz (2009) the regions with high vulnerable in Europe are east of England, the coastal strip extending from Belgium through the Netherlands and Germany to Denmark and the southern Baltic Sea coast with the deltas of Oder and Vistula rivers. These areas are heavily populated, flood-prone especially areas along the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, such as northern Italy, the lagoon of Venice and the deltas of the Rhône, Ebro and Danube rivers. Some highly populated areas in the Netherlands, Germany, England, and Italy already lie below the mean high-water mark. Coastal Regions ManagementThe integration from all views will entitle a holistic view for the viable implementation and management of that region, country and at local level. As stated by Thia-Eng (1993), there are five types of integration which include integration among sectors, integration between land and water elements of the coastal zone, integration amount levels of government, integration between nations and integration among disciplines are all essential to meet the needs for implementation. Management activities include: 1.maintaining the functional integrity of the coastal resource systems, without disrupting the environment2.reducing use of resource related conflicts, by making sure resources are used adequately and sustainably,3.maintaining the health of the environment, which means to protect the ecosystems and natural cycle,4.facilitating the progress of multisectoral development, which means allowing developers to develop within standards. These four management practices should be based on a bottom-up approach, meaning the approach starts from a local level which is more intimate to the specific environment of that area. After assessment from the local level, state and federal input can now be implemented. The bottom-up approach is works well for protecting the local environments because there is a diversity of environments that have specific needs all over the world. SolutionsThe degradation of marine and coastal resources causes increased poverty among the population who depend on these resources in the coastal zone of the southwestern region of the Indian Ocean. The Governments of Mauritius and Seychelles, two small island developing states off the coast of Africa, have accessed a new US$10 million grant from the Adaptation Fund to restore their reef ecosystems (UNDP report, 2017). The new six-year project, supported through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), will protect the island nations growing tourism industries  which account for over 30 percent of national GDP and employ approximately half the population in both countries  at the same time ensuring food security for fishers who depend on the reefs to feed their families, and reducing risks from high-intensity storms.The restoration of marine ecosystem services starting with coral reefs to meet a changing climate future project will develop sustainable partnerships and community-based, business-driven approaches for reef restoration, establish coral farming and nursery facilities, and actively restore degraded reefs. On a regional and global level, the project will improve understanding on how to use coral reef restoration as a tool for climate change adaptation, provide models for sustainable management of reef ecosystems, and build capacity for long-term restoration and management of these precious habitants.The Indian Ocean Commission (IOC) aims at increasing the living standards of people through the enhancement of marine and coastal resources and at promoting sustainable socio-economic development as stated in the IOC report, (2016). One of its main areas of intervention is the development and implementation of national plans for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), which will target priority sites due to both, the interest in the preservation of their biodiversity and their potential in terms of socio-economic development for the zone.The results of such actions of the IOC are summarised as follows: -Human capacity building and development of tools for the design of ICZM plans and for their effective implementation in the region;Improved monitoring and management of fisheries, biodiversity and natural resources of coastal areas;Enhancing the awareness of policy makers, private sector operators, NGO\’s and of the civil society on issues related to the problems of coastal zone management;Development of regional training capacity;Capacity building for people involved in multilateral negotiations on the environment.ConclusionCoastal Regions limitations may change to climate change and other variables, but what defines them will still be viable. These areas are the most vulnerable yet the most mismanaged as well. Usually for SIDS most of the country if not the whole of it will be a coastal region. As for larger countries this changes as we go further into the country were weather is entirely different all together.Task BConduct a thorough literature review on the prevailing land and sea-based activities in coastal regions globally.Land Based Activities Economic Activities GlobalOver 300,000 visitors go to Seychelles every year to explore the beaches and pristine waters. The tourism industry now accounts for 46 percent of the nations GDP, about US$600 million per year, with over half the nation employed in tourism. Chronic coastal erosion from increased demand for construction along the coasts, poorly planned coastal flooding that results in regular flooding, destruction of marine and coastal impacts, overfishing and other impacts have taken their toll on the nations marine ecosystems. Through the project, coral reef restoration works will be launched at Curieuse Marine National Park, Cousin Special Reserve, Saint Anne Marine National Park and Anse Forbans in the waters off Seychelles.Coastal and estuarine ecosystems around the world cover only 6% of the global surface, yet they contribute almost 38% of the total estimated global value of ecosystem services (Costanza et al. 2017). The resources and services they provide, both ecological and societal, have historically made them ideal locations for settlement, and more recently for major urbanization.Mauritius has taken on international acclaim as a diving and beach destination in recent years. Coastal zone activities, especially tourism, account for 36 percent of GDP in Mauritius, generating US$4.3 billion here each year. According to UNDP (2017), beaches in Mauritius have shrunk by as much as 20 meters over the last few decades due to higher seas and weakened coral ecosystems. The government indicates the connected loss of tourism to the beaches here could cost over US$100 million per year by 2060 if nothing is done. The new project will restore reef habitats in Blue Bay Marine Park, which features a new park centre, and research and education facilities, and the South East Marine Protected Area, located off the coast of Rodrigues.There also are economic activities impacting coastal regions.  Policymakers and coastal resource managers are facing the challenge in figuring out how to reap the economic benefits of coastal resources while preserving them for future generations. Addressing population issues is key to achieving such balance. These policy briefs look at population growth, urbanization, and other factors affect coastal resources; how environmental degradation influences peoples lives; and how policymakers can integrate population and resource management issues.MauritiusThe over-dependence on sugar production has also been highlighted as a weakness, particularly in terms of obstructing sustainable diversification in the sector over the long-term. Poverty is also very high in the coastal zone, which not only reduces employment options for coastal populations, but encourages harmful agriculture practices that are detrimental to coastal resources. There are agricultural activities happening in the coastal regions of Mauritius. Tourism is another Economic activity that is dominant in Mauritius contributing a major share of the countrys income. The countrys up-market tourism brand is also being threatened by a mass-tourism image, a weakness that is further accentuated by the focus on beach tourism products. The limitation of coastal land, water scarcity, tropical diseases, as well as high population density, have also been identified as challenges.  Social Activities Global Another social activity is urbanization and it is increasing along the coastlines, planning and management are essential to protecting the ecosystems and environment from depleting. Coastal management is becoming implemented more because of the movement of people to the shore and the hazards that come with the territory. Some of the hazards include movement of barrier islands, sea level rise, hurricanes, earthquakes, flooding, erosion, pollution and human development along the coast.It is predicted that by the end of the century there will be 2 billion climate refugees and environmental migrants. Out of a projected population of 11 billion by 2100, that is almost 1/5 of the people on earth (Cicin -Sain and Knecht, 1998). Most of these people will have lived along the coastlines. During and after events like hurricanes and floods, standing water can be a breeding ground for pathogenic bacteria and disease vectors like mosquitoes. Population growth has an effect to the natural ecosystem of coastal regions. Coastal regions are home to a large and growing proportion of the worlds population and are undergoing environmental decline. Constanza et al (2017) give an approximation 3 billion people which is about half of the worlds population to live within 200 kilometres of a coastline. By 2025, that figure is likely to double. Coastal zones have always attracted people because of their rich resources, particularly their supply of subsistence resources; for logistical reasons, as they offer access points to marine trade and transport; for recreational or cultural activities; or simply because of their special sense of place at the interface between land and sea. The development and utilization of coastal zones has greatly increased during the recent decades and coasts are undergoing tremendous socio-economic and environmental changes a trend which is expected to continue in future.Spatially explicit estimates of the baseline population with demographic data are combined in order to derive scenario-driven projections of coastal population development. Scenarios show that the number of people living in the low-elevation coastal zone, as well as the number of people exposed to flooding from 1 in 100-year storm surge events, is highest in Asia (Balk et al, 2007). China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Viet Nam are estimated to have the highest total coastal population exposure in the baseline year and this ranking is expected to remain largely unchanged in the future. However, according to Hugo (2011) Africa is expected to experience the highest rates of population growth and urbanization in the coastal zone, particularly in Egypt and sub-Saharan countries in Western and Eastern Africa. These countries and regions have a high degree of exposure to coastal flooding, governments and environmental bodies help identify regions where policies and adaptive planning for building resilient coastal communities are not only desirable but essential. The highest rates of urban land conversion in the coastal zone, i.e. increase of urban extent, occurred in China and Southwest Asia, while the lowest change took place in Europe, North America and Oceania. Furthermore, high-impact coastal hazards, such as tsunamis, can devastate whole regions and result in high casualties, as observed during the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and the Great Eastern Earthquake and Tsunami which hit the northeast coast of Japan in 2011 (Neumann et al, 2015).Sea Based ActivitiesEconomic Activities Global Nonpoint source pollution would pertain more to fertilizer runoff, and industrial waste. Examples of pollution that affect the coastal regions are but are not limited to; fertilizer runoff, oil spills, and dumping of hazardous materials into the oceans. More human acts that hurt the coastline are as follows; waste discharge, fishing, dredging, mining, and drilling. Oil spills are one of the most hazardous dangers towards coastal communities. They are hard to contain, difficult to clean up, and devastate everything. The fish, animals such as birds, the water, and especially the coastline near the spill. The most recent oil spill that had everybody concerned with oil spill was the BP oil spill.The BP Oil Spill was the most massive oil spill in U.S. history. The cause of the discharge was an explosion on the British Petroleum\’s Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010. As stated by Weber (2010) that explosion resulted in 11 deaths and the release of million barrels of crude oil into the Gulf over 87 days. The crude killed more than 2,400 animals, including cattle, fish, birds, and reptiles, in the department of Santander. More than 1,000 tree species in the area have been damaged, and families have been relocated and treated for vomiting, headaches, and dizziness associated with the spill.According to the OECD, oceans contribute $1.5 trillion annually in value-added to the overall economy. The FAO (2016) estimates that around 60 million people are employed in fishing and fish-farming, with the majority of those employed by capture fisheries working in small-scale operations in developing countries. In 2016, fisheries produced roughly 171 million tons of fish, with a first sale value estimated at US$362 billion, generating over US$152 billion in exports, 54 percent originating from developing countries. Moreover, fish provided about 3.2 billion people with almost 20 percent of their average intake of animal protein, even more in poor countries.Healthy oceans, coasts and freshwater ecosystems are crucial for economic growth and food production, but they are also fundamental to global efforts to mitigate climate change. Blue carbon sinks such as mangroves and other vegetated ocean habitats sequester 25 percent of the extra CO2 from fossil fuels and protect coastal communities from floods and storms as perceived by Schwartz, (2009). In turn, warming oceans and atmospheric carbon are causing ocean acidification that threatens the balance and productivity of the oceans. While ocean resources have the potential to boost growth and wealth, human activity has taken a toll on ocean health. Fish stocks have deteriorated due to overfishing the share of fish stocks outside biologically sustainable levels rose from 10 percent in 1974 to 33percent in 2015, while in the same year approximately 60 percent of fish stocks were fully exploited.Mining is mostly a land-based activity but also an offshore activity for oil and gas. Grant and Briggs (2002) observed how accelerated industrial and economic growth necessitates rapid development of the mineral sector to support the basic manufacturing industries.  Developed and developing countries are in a race to achieve the highest level of economic and social progress. The speed of this development needs to be checked and monitored to safeguard the environment and maintain quality, ecofriendly living conditions on a continuing and sustainable basis. There also is the problem of high present day levels of radioactive substances. These are found in coastal waters are the result of natural radioactivity (cosmic rays, earth\’s crust), and radioactivity released due to human activities such as oil exploration and combustion, phosphate production and use, land-based mining, medical diagnosis, therapy and food conservation. There also is weapon testing and the resulting atmospheric fallout, the releasing or dumping of wastes from nuclear fuel cycle systems, and nuclear accidents (for example Chernobyl in 1985). Ofiara and Seneca (2006) state that dumping of high-level radioactive waste is no longer permitted in the ocean but dumping of low-level wastes is still permitted as it contains less radioactivity. The world\’s oceans have been a sink for radioactive waste from the production of nuclear weapons and from electric power and reprocessing facilities since 1944. Radioactive waste enters the ocean from nuclear per gram than high-level waste.  MauritiusOnly one Mari culture farm was active in Mauritius and Rodriguez in 2008, with cage culture being utilized to produce gold lined sea bream, red drum and cobia in Mahebourg. The farm produces both for domestic consumption and export, employs 65 people and, in 2008, produced an estimated 750 tons. There are constraints prevalent in the sector, despite the support of government. For example, weak extension capacity, a lack of funding at the Albion Research Center and weak research capacity at the University of Mauritius highlight the technical weaknesses that constrain the sector. Likewise, user conflicts over marine resources, competition for coastal land with hotel developers and theft and vandalism have also been highlighted as prevalent challenges. Other constraints such as the threat of cyclones and poor access to the coast, have also been well documented in the report. The existing Aquaculture  Social Activities Global Five countries produce the highest volumes of plastic waste and researchers estimate that a 75 percent reduction in plastics pollution in just China, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam could reduce the flow of plastic into the ocean globally by almost 45 percent (Jambeck et al, 2015).MauritiusThe Fisheries in Mauritius employs an estimated 11,000 people and contributes 1.5% to GDP. Artisanal fishers have an income level of around Rs300 per day, while monthly consumption expenditures for all fishers are, on average, above Rs 4,000. Total domestic production in the sector is valued at Rs 1 billion, however, production in the artisanal sector dropped by nearly 360 tons between 2004 and 2008, which correlates to the declines in total catch during the same period. In Rodrigues, the fisheries sector employs an estimated 2,000 people, 78% of which are between the ages of twenty to forty-five. The number of fishermen increased between 2005 and 2008, while production in the sector, unlike Mauritius, increased during the same period. The artisanal sub-sector supplies the majority of fish produced domestically, however, 60% of all domestic fish consumption is imported. Many constraints have been identified in the sector, including weaknesses in capacity, a lack of finance and overall sustainability. For example, poor infrastructure and weak law enforcement both highlight the challenge of capacity in the sector. Low earnings and revenue, as well as a lack of access to capital, also highlight the extensive financial constraints prevalent in the sector. Over-exploitation of resources in the lagoon fishery, as well as the use of destructive fishing techniques, such as harpoons and seine nets, has also been highlighted as prevalent environmental issues. Catch rates and overall resources are also quite limited, which further aggravates user conflicts with recreational fishers and, potentially, the marine aquaculture sector.  Environmental Activities Global Hoornweg et al (2012) see pollution, trawling, and human development as major human disasters that affect coastal regions. There are two main categories related to pollution, point source pollution, and nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution is when there is an exact location such as a pipeline or a body of water that leads into the rivers and oceans. Known dumping into the ocean is also another point source of pollution. Marine sources of pollution, lack of knowledge and coordination, unsustainable harvesting of fishes, brackish water shrimp farming and weak management practices and development activities are deteriorating the marine environment, and it is likely to increase further. The lack of inter-sectoral coordination, as well as regional cooperation, has failed to bring successful solutions to address the coastal and transboundary issues the coastal region faces. In addition, the current plans of the government on development activities in coastal and deep ocean areas such as deep seaport development, oil and gas exploration activities, and ecotourism will lead to huge pressure on the marine environment.Ships are a major source of water pollution as they use the tar-like, sulfur-concentrated remains of petroleum left once the gasoline, oil and all other products have been extracted. This high-sulfur fuel is responsible for the significant environmental impacts of ship sulfur emissions. Sulfur emissions contribute to acid rain, which can pollute freshwater lakes and rivers, and damage vegetation. \”Sulfur emissions have a large role in the formation of aerosols (tiny particles) on which water condenses to form clouds. The interactions of aerosols and clouds have been identified as one of the most important uncertainties in understanding the rate of climate change, or global warming, because clouds reflect energy and thereby reduce the net warming effect of long-lived greenhouse gases.\” (Schwartz, 2009)The effect of ship emissions is most evident in the Northern Hemisphere oceans, where there is more than 60 percent of sulphur dioxide concentration in the atmosphere and 30 percent of all sulphates can be attributed to ships. Except for the area encompassing Australia, the Southern Hemisphere oceans are almost unaffected. This is because of the heavier shipping that occurs in the north. This is most important for coastal cities that receive the brunt of sulphur pollution from ships.Pollution in coastal regions has become a cause to panic. Since most contaminants enter the sea by flows from the surrounding land, in particular via rivers, the highest concentrations are often found in estuaries and coastal areas and thus maximal effects of contaminants on the ecosystem could be expected to occur here. This general picture can be influenced by additional inputs from sources at sea such as ships, offshore platforms and by inputs via the atmosphere.Overall, coastal ecosystems remain largely affected by direct discharges of oil from offshore activities and illegal discharges from ships. Operational discharges consist of production water and drilling cuttings. Although the amount of oil discharged via production water is increasing as platforms are getting older, cuttings still account for 75% of the oil entering the sea as a result of normal operations (Grant and Briggs, 2002). The effects on the marine environment have been extensively studied by national authorities as well as by the industry. Spills of oil and the release of chemicals (i.e. lubricants) used during exploitation constitute an important source of chronic pollution to coastal seas. Marine debris as an environmental problem has gained increasing attention through recent UN Resolutions, global environmental agreements and decisions of international agencies. Litter was one of the categories incorporated in the 1995 Washington Declaration concerning a Global Programme of Action (GPA) for the protection of the environment from land-based sources (UNEP, 1995). It was listed as being of concern by GESAMP (Group of Experts on The Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection) in a report entitled Protecting the ocean from land-based activities in 2001.Despite these initiatives, there are still large gaps in our knowledge of marine debris, micro plastics regarding inputs and potential impacts especially at the local level and many questions still to be answered regarding the effectiveness of waste management measures. Capacity building in waste management is an area where much more effort needs to be mobilized. There is marine waste in:1.Discharge of oil; 2.Control of hazardous liquids; 3.Transport of hazardous materials in a packaged form; 4.Discharge of sewage; 5.Disposal of plastics and garbage 6.Air pollutionBy comparison to land-based sources, the contribution of garbage from shipping may not be as large as previously thought, although it remains a concern. It is also one of the few inputs of plastic and other debris which is directly controlled by international treaties. Coastal municipalities rely heavily on the marine environment and are therefore directly confronted with issues of pollution including marine litter which affects tourism and recreation including ecotourism as beaches attract approximately 60% of visitors to the coasts and marine industries such as fishing and aquaculture as well as shipping. The management of the Kenyan coast is sectoral with the formulation of legislation to regulate fisheries, water, tourism, forests and biodiversity conservation through land planning, tourism industry licensing, tourism development and cooperation, wildlife and water conservation (Cinner et al., 2012). Anthropogenic activities, such as extensive use of fertilizers in agricultural fields and untreated domestic sewage, significantly influence the riverine export of N and P into rivers, and subsequently to the coastal systems (Lima et al., 2010).   Mauritius The main environmental problems facing Mauritius are water pollution, soil erosion, and preservation of its wildlife. The sources of water pollution are sewage and agricultural chemicals. Mauritius cities produce 0.1 million tons of solid waste annually. The erosion of the soil occurs through deforestation mainly.One of the biggest threats that the environment faces today is environmental degradation. One of the main reasons for environmental degradation is human activity. Rampant burning of fossil fuel and deforestation are major causes of this degradation. Also, hunting, expansion of residential areas, increasing population and industrialization are degrading the environment beyond repair.In Mauritius, there is very fast development simultaneously causing numerous problems, a lack of human resources and frequent undeserved privileges. There are various conflicts of interest on a small space, particularly on the coastal zone, between various activities. According to Empretec Mauritius, the tourism industry has undoubtedly contributed to the degradation of coastal and marine environment. Sometimes sewage treatment plants were built close to the seashore as was the case in 1990 in the north. Sand erosion caused by the activities as construction of piers and other hard structures close to the seashore and by sand mining which got banned in October 2001. The seriousness of the problem can be gauged by the fact that the Government has, over the past years, built sea defenses at certain places round the coast like Grand Baie, Cap Malheureux and Flic en Flac. The defenses were gabions which are wire netting cages 1 metre cube in volume filled with rocks. The objective of this method is to hold sand in place and permit the local accumulation of sand. Unfortunately, gabions tend to disintegrate with time for instance at Flic en Flac. Problems Emanating from The ActivitiesThere are many prevailing land and sea-based activities in coastal regions on a global scale. Some of these activities are coastal migration, tourism, pollution, mass fishing, agriculture, mining, industry, disposing radioactive substances, oil and gas extraction and offshore installations. The coastal zone supports numerous land-based activities that affect the coastal waters.  Even if accidental spills represent a relatively small source of oil, they directly affect birds and mammals and have devastative effects on local vulnerable economies. Shipping is a main source of oil slicks either chronic or accidental showing no downward trend.Oil-smeared bird The contribution of agriculture to the pollution of coastal ecosystems affects biogeochemical cycles, notably in terms of: Discharge of methane and ammonia contributing to the greenhouse effectUse of insecticides and other pesticides affecting species, cultivated or notPollution, from use of oil, for instanceNutrients run-off from silage and slurry-manure, use of fertilizers leading to eutrophication. Coastal eutrophication can result from excess nutrients from agriculture, forestry and municipal waste water discharge.It is one of the most common water-quality management problems of lakes and reservoirs all over the world. As stated by Sagasta et al (2017), about 3040% of lakes and reservoirs worldwide are affected by unnaturally high nutrient concentrations. Due to the discharge of insufficiently purified municipal waste water and drainage from agriculturally fertilized areas, the extent of eutrophication processes has significantly increased since the middle of the last century.Solutions Solutions have been devised over the years the UN Environment hosts the GPA (global program of action) for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. It represents the only global intergovernmental mechanism directly addressing the connectivity between terrestrial, freshwater, coastal, and marine ecosystems. Marine litter, excess nutrients, and inadequate wastewater treatment have been the recent focus of the GPA activities. These are designed to assist national or regional authorities to devise and implement sustained action to prevent, reduce, control, or eliminate marine degradation from land-based activities. UN Environment is one of several implementing agencies for projects funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF).Also, property owners living on the beach front often construct articial barriers to alter the natural movement of sand along the coast, sometimes with undesirable results. For example, they may build groins, concrete or stone walls protruding perpendicular to the shore, to prevent beach drift from removing sand. Plastics Europe supports the 2009 UNEP view that the majority of marine litter originates from land-based sources and that we need to prevent it from entering marine habitats through integrated management of solid-waste. Some 10 years of effort and over 50 million Euros of industry investment have been mobilized to reduce plastic waste and to encourage recycling. The main direct human pressures affecting European seas can be attributed to several of these activities and include selective extraction of species (i.e. fisheries), seafloor damage, pollution by nutrient enrichment and contaminants, and the spreading of non-indigenous species.It is now suggested that ensuring the efficient use of fertilizers and associated crop management practices through effective policy implementation in India can lead to substantial savings and at least 30% reduction in the use of N. A reduction in nutrient levels is being seen in the North-East Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea. (Richardson and Jorgensen, 1996) Contaminants are widespread in the marine environment, originating from untreated waste water, port activities and other areas. A downward trend is seen in the North-East Atlantic for lead and lindane, among others. An upward trend is seen in the Mediterranean Sea for mercury and lead. The introduction of non-indigenous species is increasing in European seas through shipping, the Suez Canal and to a much lesser degree aquaculture.Conclusion In conclusion while climate change mitigation requires regional action and global cooperation, some of the remaining, more direct, sectoral or point source pressures can be addressed directly by the EU through its policies and legislation. However, sustainability challenges will remain unless smart and innovative solutions are developed and implemented at a rate that coincides with increasing exploitation of the seas. Solutions that require, as a pre-requisite, the implementation of the MSFD ecosystem-based approach to the management of human activities.Task CConduct a thorough literature review on the existing assessment methods pertaining to vulnerability and resilience in global communities.IntroductionDefinition of TermsVulnerability is a function of the sensitivity of a particular system to climate changes, its exposure to those changes, and its capacity to adapt to those changes (IPCC 2007) Climate resilience can be generally defined as the capacity for a socio-ecological system to absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change and adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts.(CVCA)Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment-analyze climate change vulnerability and adaptive capacity at the community level, -to combine community knowledge and scientic data to yield greater understanding about local impacts of climate change.is based on a framework of enabling factors for Community-Based Adaptation-participatory exercises and discussions, which link community knowledge to available scientic information on climate change.-engagement with communities and local stakeholders over a period of time to gather information, analyze the data, validate the analysis, and for application in a broader participatory planning process.Mozambique(CCRA)Coastal Community Resilience Assessment-Poverty reduction-Disaster risk reductionParticipatory process workingMaldives, India, Indonesia(CRDSA)(VCA)Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment-Disaster risk reduction-Disaster preparedness-Geospatial data (e.g. maps, satellite images, social mapping, transect walks)-Venn diagrams and other institutional appraisal/mapping methods-descriptive-qualitativeMongolia(Diva)Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability Assessment-The obsolesce and low spatial resolution of underlying data sources -the limited number of scenarios used -the reliance of global mean sea level rise is the only driver of bio-geophysical and socio-economic dynamics and feedback. -the non-consideration of power geophysical in socio economic dynamics and feedback arbitrary and rather simplistic assumptions regarding adaptation develop a dynamic, interactive and flexible CD-ROM-based tool that will enable its users to produce quantitative information on a range of coastal vulnerability indicatorsDinas Coast(CCVATCH) Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment Tool for Coastal Habitats-Enhance and inspire stewardship-promote protection management of estuaries and their watersheds in coastal communities through place-based approaches-for use by researchers, land managers and decision makers. -To generate information on resources and data sources and compiling a list of climate change on coastal habitats research.-To integrate the perspectives and knowledge of researchers and intended users to ensure relevance of tool.  -To build a shared understanding of the system and the ways in which climate change exposure may impact local habitats and possible actions that may mitigate climate change impacts.Excel Spreadsheet -Numerical scores for sensitivity are entered for each climate X stressor for each habitat Adaptive capacity scores are entered for each habitat-Certainty scores are given for each score entered-A total sensitivity score is calculated for each habitat. A matrix combines the sensitivity and adaptive capacity scores to create the vulnerability scoreNorth, and South Carolina and Rhodes Island(CDRI)Community disaster resilience index-To enhance coastal governance-coastal resource management-society and economy -risk knowledge-emergency response -disaster recovery -land use.-human capital-physical capital-economic capital-social capitaltheoretical framework matrixTexas USA, along the Gulf Coast and AustraliaTask 4Critically analyze the existing assessment methodsIntroductionThese are utilization of illustration techniques, highlighting strengths and weaknesses, ongoing communication, and identifying changes that have occurred over time. More improvement, specifically in terms of ongoing communication of findings and presenting temporal changes is needed.Another challenge would be to develop assessment tools that are flexible enough to be applicable to various locations. Therefore, tools should be developed in a way that allows customization to the specific needs of different communities. In other words, communities should be able to add or remove criteria and indicators according to their needs and priorities. Also, tool developers should be aware of the limitations of using fixed thresholds for assessing resilience. Allowing for flexibility in defining thresholds is essential to reflect the specific needs and conditions of different communities.(VCA) Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment-the emphasis on community ownership of the vulnerability assessment process and results-communities are fully engaged from the beginning and are integral to decision-making and to strengthening community resilience. – implementation of the VCA in communities has led to the identication of other priority social issues including violence prevention, unemployment, livelihoods, and social security.-flexible to adapt to different needs and contexts-it focuses heavily on social vulnerability in response to hazards-it does not adequately address environmental vulnerability and human dependence on the environment- lack of an agreed set of indicators of social vulnerabilityCCVATCH-a collaborative process that involves expert knowledge of coastal and estuarine habitats and local understanding of habitat condition and response- it guides policy and funding decisions- it is a complicated tool which needs a trained individual to use it.Community disaster resilience index-Measuring antecedent/current conditions this can fail to trace the disasters pattern(CVCA)Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Assessmentthe ability to directly support planning processes by providing context-specic information about the impacts of climate change, local vulnerability, and existing adaptive capacityA drawback is that while the tool suggests entry points for introducing future climate projections andCommunity-Based Climate Vulnerability and Adaptation Toolsother scientic information in community dialogues, it does not provide concrete guidance on how to do so.Personal assessment of toolsThe tools described above have overarching similarities in terms of their broad-scale objectives (e.g., assessing the vulnerability of coastal ecosystems and communities to climate impacts and adaptation responses), yet differences exist in their framing and approach. Some tools prioritize conservation and natural resource management, while others make community development central, and still others specically aim to draw linkages between the two. In other cases, tools focusing on disaster and risk reduction (e.g., VCA), may not explicitly address natural resource management and conservation objectives.Other tools place emphasis on livelihoods (CVCA) or disaster management (VCA) and do not address environmental factors as comprehensively. When considering a tool, users must consider what factors they are seeking to address and compare this with the factors that different tools are designed to address.While these tools acknowledge the importance of climate model outputs, they do not provide the guidance necessary to integrate such outputs into the assessment. Uncertainties in climate model projections pose additional challenge for how to incorporate these data into assessments. The tools above emphasize the use of more readily available information, such as local observations and perceptions of climate impacts and responses, which are subjective and also may reect substantial uncertainties.The models are also lacking in attempts to quantify the relationships and inter dependencies between variables and particularly between levels of analysis. For example, in the BRIC it could be hypothesized that levels of education and communication capacity could predict levels of political engagement, civic involvement and advocacy. If this relationship exists, it could be interpreted to mean that only political engagement etc, are predictors of resilience (i.e., the ability to cope and adapt to novel disaster conditions) and that education represents a mainstream resource in which resilience characteristics are developed.The latter point also raises issues regarding the development of resilience. The majority of the characteristics identified in these models can only be developed and changed through social policy and political change. This undermines principles of contemporary DRR that highlight the importance of shared responsibility as a basis for resilient communities.This study showed that most methods are predominately qualitative although it might be because of the qualitative nature of resilience indicators, we have to develop quantitative and more accurate models. All of the tools we reviewed require community consultation, which requires time and money to cover facilitation, community participation, data collection, management, and synthesis, and presentation and application of results.Task EPropose an assessment tool for analyzing vulnerability and resilience for Small Island States with consideration to Mauritius.IntroductionSmall Island States became the most vulnerable to climate change because they suffer from most common environmental problems due to their smallness, remoteness and exposure to natural hazards, though they contribute less to climate change.Also, tools need to better acknowledge the fact that resilience building is a dynamic process. In addition to relying on historical trends and baseline conditions, it is essential to monitor conditions at regular intervals and also use modelling and projection techniques to avoid being overwhelmed by the constantly changing conditions.Issues of concern Temperature, C02 emissions, change in precipitation, change in sea level, increase in extreme climatic events, pollution, natural disasters, water PH change, air quality Indicatorsnatural and environmental disasters Tourism resources Sustainable capacity development and educationhigh winds, sea level rise, sea temperature increase, temperature increaselongevity, education and knowledge and standards of living.Data SourcesNational statisticsnational accounts national development and sustainable development plansreports such as the State of the Environment, and progress reportsObjectivesTo make a thorough assessment on vulnerability and resilience to advice the communities in the coastal regions if they can build better resilience measures of there is need for relocation.To diminish homelessnessTo make sure people and their livelihoods are in safe areasTo significantly reduce flood prone damagesAssessment Tool MethodThe assessment of vulnerability and resilience on Mauritius will be done through scores for the three dimensions of sustainable development which are social, economic and environmental, and they are assessed for both vulnerability and resilience.Table showing dimensions of the proposed Vulnerability and Resilience Assessment ToolDIMENSIONVULNERABILITYRESILIENCESOCIAL*Vulnerability of the population to storm surges  * Differences in capacity to manage risk of storm surges for men and women *Formulation and implementation of community-based disaster management plans *Upgrades on early warning systems for cyclones and storm surges *Access to storm shelters for vulnerable populationsENVIRONMENTAL*Vulnerability of land and marine resources to cyclones and storm surges  *Vulnerability of coastal ecosystems to storm surges  *Formulation and implementation of integrated coastal zone development plansECONOMIC*Extent of economic dependence on a sector vulnerable to cyclones/hurricanes and storm surges e.g. tourism * Economic infrastructures level of exposure to cyclones/hurricanes and storm surges  *Extent to which measures to manage impacts of cyclones/hurricanes and storm surges on the economy are integrated into national development plans *Level of funding for measures to manage impacts of cyclones/hurricanes and storm surges on economic infrastructure  There is need for multi stakeholders to be eligible to score vulnerability and resilience for Mauritius. The tool needs to be less complex so any stakeholder can use it with little training.